Propaganda has always been central to the strategies of insurgent groups. From bullets to suicide attacks, the war by non-state actors has been extended to opinion making, idea generating, and manipulating perceptions. This manipulation includes not only spreading terror and fear but also accelerating the momentum of ideological appeal to the receivers. With the emergence of digital tools, this manipulation now occurs in the cyber realm through which propaganda disseminates beyond geographical boundaries. Among modern terrorist organizations, Boko Haram in Africa and ISIS in the Middle East stand out not only because of their tactics but also for the distinctive ways they craft and spread propaganda. Terrorists’ use of websites, blogs, YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, and Facebook to influence people is on the rise globally.
Boko Haram’s digital propaganda:
Boko Haram, a Nigerian-based Islamist insurgent group, has adopted technology for spreading violent-based religious ideology and hate messages, raising money and digital funding, coordinating actions and executing attacks. Even its name, “Western education is forbidden,” encapsulates its ideology. Boko Haram exploited the digital space for mobilization. It leverages social media for recruitment through glorification of jihad and martyrdom. Previously, it used fake SIM cards to demand funds and threaten enemies. It relied on radios, sermons, and word-of-mouth. Digital use grew after the 2010 prison break. It began releasing online videos, execution footage, and speeches that were widely reposted before takedowns. The group disseminates propaganda and statements to showcase its attacks, leverage its messages, and justify its version of Islam. The April 2014 abduction of 276 Nigerian schoolgirls amplified the group’s unprecedented global visibility. The leader of the group boasted in a video that “I will sell your girls in the market.” This attracted the global media attention with the hashtag #BringBackOurGirls. Its propaganda is usually directed at local communities in Northern Nigeria and the Lake Chad Basin, and it uses Hausa, Kanuri, and Arabic to ensure connectivity with local populations. It has released about 100 videos, between 2016 and 2020, to show beheadings, executions, and stoning to death of those who performed against Shariah.
The formation of the Islamic state in Africa is well documented. In 2015, Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau paid an allegiance to the IS, and Boko Haram changed its name to ISWAP. The entry of IS changed the dynamics of strategy, with new actors and a new form of digital propaganda. It trained media and cyber tactics to Boko Haram, which amplified its symbiotic relations with other groups. Boko Haram got unfettered access to Al Qaeda’s Al Andalus media arm, which assists in the propagation campaign.
Boko Haram shifted to encrypted platforms such as WhatsApp and Telegram for propaganda. However, from 2017 to 2021, Nigerian military and tech companies pressured these platforms to remove Boko Haram videos, due to which its public popularity declined and the shift turned to the local propaganda. But, now, ISWAP has adopted ISIS’s propaganda style. Reports also allege that this group now uses high-speed satellite internet and AI tools for media editing. In 2024, it created over 730 videos via 25 accounts. By 2025, it had started using Tiktok rampantly, and it targets youth, as 24 million TikTok users in Nigeria are youth. It conducts hour-long live streams in Hausa to interact with violence. However, historically, Boko Haram propaganda has been low-tech. Unlike the ISIS’s global outreach, Boko Haram leans on fear-based propaganda.
ISIS’s digital propaganda:
ISIS remains the most potent terrorist organization in the 21st century that possesses sophisticated cyber capabilities. It recruits young jihadis, using 21 different languages. Between 2014 and 2017, the group witnessed a decline in territorial control but a rise in media outreach. It has two major divisions that carry out propaganda: Al Hayat media (focuses on recruiting people) and Mu’assassat al-Furqan (for spreading fear). ISIS, also known as a Islamic State, under the leadership of Abu Bakr Al Baghdadi, made significant turning points. Its activities quickly transformed from the conventional jihadist channels to the advanced media production houses. Its digital magazines, Dabiq and Rumiyah, signaled the appearance of English language material. The Dabiq is impressive with the articles written by the Westerners. The shift from local to international was also dynamic.
The investigation of the 2016 attack in France, in which terrorists took nuns and worshipers hostage, revealed the fact that two attackers involved were inspired by the ISIS propaganda through the encrypted chatroom. ISIS supporters used social media to call on their fellow terrorists to poison food in grocery stores across Europe and the United States of America. During the 2014 World Cup, ISIS members tweeted their videos under the hashtags related to the sports. This gave them unlimited access to millions of users who were browsing Twitter for sports updates. An investigation by the U.S. House Committee revealed that Twitter remains the terrorists’ favourite platform while Facebook is famous for posting videos and images. The report also discovered that the group is using technology to prevent detection. Most ISIS members are self-recruited through social media, where they are able to connect with their comrades through the cyber-web. It propagates Hollywood style long-hour videos about Islamic success. It targets 16-30 years-old who feel themselves isolated in Western society and who learn Islam from ISIS. The material is exclusive for Sunni Muslims of different nationalities. ISIS works on the themes of urgency, agency, and victory to propel members to fight to prevent the killing of their brothers. It illustrates the multi-ethnic background of its members, as evidenced by the graphics published by Dabiq.
It recruits women in two different ways. Women described as “jihadi brides” reach out to others on social media and urge them to travel to the caliphate to fulfill their duties. ISIS emphasizes the themes of sisterhood, belonging, marriage, and family. On the other hand, magazine articles promote the idea of sexual jihad, that men are allowed to engage with a woman to relieve stress so they can fight more effectively. ISIS has used the fatwa of Wahabi cleric Sheikh Mohamed Al-Arefe (2013) to justify its claim. This sexualization of women appeals to frustrated individuals who are the target of ISIS. Five Star Jihad is an example of this ISIS propaganda. This multi-layered digital propaganda of ISIS has limited the efforts of governments to introduce counter-terrorism policies. Thus, ISIS is the biggest manifestation of digital propaganda by a non-state actor and a terrorist group.
